Black Collegian Career Center

This group, comprising Rev. Adam Clayton Power, Dr. Channing H. Tobias, Lester Granger, Watter White, John Sengstacke, T. Arnold Hill, A. Philip Randolph, Judge William H. Hastie, and most notably, for this article, Dr. Mary Mcleod Bethune, was the leadership force that set the stage for opportunities in the military. Through their dynamic work during an era of racism a half-century ago, these African-American legends put into place the enormous achievements in the armed forces that you see today.

Dr. Mary Mcleod Bethune, founder of Bethune-Cookman College and Special Assistant to both the Secretary of War and President Franklin D. Roosevelt, was a major advocate of opening military occupations to African-Americans. Her close friendship with Mrs. Eleanor Roosevelt provided prominent approaches in developing armed forces advancements during the 1940s. Dr. Bethunes' tireless work for military officer opportunities has been most historically rooted in her statement, "Our people will never be satisfied until we see black faces in high places."

While growing up in Elizabeth City, NC, home of large Naval and Coast Aviation Installations, my father told me a wonderful story about meeting Dr. Bethune in 1939. He met her at the Mount Lebanon A.M.E. Zion Church, during founders day celebrations for the National Council of Negro Women (NCNW). Her presentation was a glorious beacon of light in providing directions and solutions for the rectification of career problems facing African Americans.

Further meetings with NCNW chapters throughout the country, and her leadership position with the National Youth Administration, placed Bethune in a strategic position for opening military job doors as World War II began.

Bethune was a sociopolitical catalyst with the right connections, as America entered into WWII. With the conflict widening around the world, her wisdom, genius, and inspirational guidance were sought to improve job conditions and human treatment for African Americans. Her work caused thousands of African-American soldiers, sailors, and marines to refer to her as "Mother Bethune." Her immense success in the art of compromise and political power provided many career milestones for African-American military personnel.

This article will provide some selected historical milestones that were the results of Bethune and other distinguished African-American legends. These special historical moments, within the U.S. Army, Navy, Air Force, Marines, and Coast Guard, are the bedrock of todayÕs unlimited career choices for African Americans.

The U.S. Army

Protecting the security of America is the role of the U.S. Army. The present day Army needs around 90,000 new enlistees each year. These men and women find an array of opportunities in the enlisted ranks, ranging from managerial positions to highly complex operational roles in transpotation, aviation, weaponry, electronics, computer systems, and logistics. The officer ranks are also challenging with their vast assortment of leadership positions.

Opportunities for African-American women in the U.S. Army of the 1990's are tremendous, but there was a time, before WWII, when they were very few. On 14 May 1942, President Roosevelt signed public law 554, which created the Women's Army Corps. The director was Lt. Colonel Oveta Culp Hobby from Texas. Even then there was major concern about the plight of African-American women. The NCNW requested that Bethune be appointed to a high level policy position to provide guidance and direction. The Secretary of War accepted this request, and named Bethune Special Assistant to the Secretary of War.

This position was a godsend for policy and decision making in the matter of how African Americans would be used in the military. Bethune was able to work with Lt. Colonel Hobby to set the stage for large numbers of African-American women to join the U.S. Army. Although the military of WWII was segregated, Bethunes' wisdom, knowledge, and drive, allowed her to speak up, and straighten out many problems caused by unequal treatment.

Bethune created an environment that resulted in the commissioning of African-American female officers in the Army Nurse Corps, and the establishment of the 6888th Postal Battalion, which solved the problems of mail delivery in England and Europe. Her exemplary efforts, during WWII, helped develop an Army framework from which African-American female Generals Hazel Winifred Johnson would be commissioned in September 1979, and later Sherian G. Cadoria.

The U.S. Navy

The U.S. Navy defends America's right to travel and trade on the oceans around the world. Career opportunities are abundant for African Americans in both the enlisted and the officer communities. According to Marcia Chalmers, Special Assistant for Minority Affairs at the U. S. Navy Recruiting Command, today's fleet is a "highly diverse organization, requiring at least 55,000 persons to fill enlisted job openings yearly. "The officer community has critical needs for leadership personnel for ships, submarines, aviation, nuclear power, and medicine. A highly qualified African-American college or university graduate is in high demand."

But Navy job opportunities for African Americans during the early days of WWII were pathetic. African American sailors were restricted to the messman rating, and an enforced system of segregation. This policy led to many major ironic situations, one of which led to the first hero of WWII, Mess Attendent 3rd Class Dorie Doris Miller, USN. During the mass confusion on board the U.S.S. West Virginia, while being attacked by the Japanese at Pearl Harbor, 7 December 1941, Messman Miller shot down six enemy aircraft and saved the life of his captain. His actions set the course for other African-American sailors to serve the Navy in frontline positions. He was awarded the Navy Cross on 7 May 1942, "For distinguished devotion to duty, extraordinary courage, and disregard for his own personal safety."

During these historical moments, a naval secret weapon was at work seeking greater opportunities for African-American sailors. Bethune was working closely with Mrs. Roosevelt and the Secretary of War to open up the job ranks. First, through her policy network, she urged President Roosevelt to open up the general enlistment ranks to African Americans.

He did so, and on 2 June 1942, William Baldwin of Washington, DC, became the first African American to join the general service branch of the U.S. Navy. Gradually, this decision led to the establishment of two ships, in 1943, the U.S.S. Mason (DE-529) and Patrol Craft 1264, each manned with an African-American enlisted crew. The officers on board these ships were White. However, a plan to commission African-American Naval Officers was already set.

In 1944, sixteen enlisted African-American petty officers gathered at Great Lakes, IL. This group, now known as the "Golden Thirteen," arrived to train at the first Officer Candidate School setup for African-American Naval personnel. Of this group, Jesse W. Arbor, Samuel Barnes, Philip Barnes, Dalton Baugh, George C. Cooper, Reginald Goodwin, James E. Hair, Graham E. Martin, Dennis Nelson, John W. Reagan, Frank E. Sublett Jr., and William S. White were commissioned as Ensigns in the U. S. Navy, and Charles Lear was commissioned as a warrant officer. Because of politics, Lewis Williams, J. B. Pinkney, and A. Alves, who all completed the officer training course, never received their commissions as Naval Ensigns.

A priority of Navy recruiting were doctors during the early days of WWII, and this priority led to a "stroke of luck" for an African-American medical student. Although the Navy was not commissioning African Americans as Officers at Harvard University on 18 June 1942, the Navy awarded a naval reserve commission to Bernard Whitfield Robinson.

Robinson was a medical student, and the recruiting officer who signed him up, thought that he was White. Realizing what had happened, the Naval Office of Personnel tried to "get rid of Mr. Robinson," but was unable to rescind the commission. So, the historical significance is that Robinson was the first African American to receive a direct commission as a naval officer. He was placed on active duty after the "Golden Thirteen" had received their commissions.

Later the Navy created the V-12 program, and permitted American Americans to enter the regular "pipeline" for officer selection and training. This program created our first African-American Admiral, Samuel L. Gravely, Jr. Carl Rowan, newspaper journalist and former director of the United States Information Agency, was also a graduate of the U.S. Navy V-12 program.

In 1949, Wesly Brown, the first African-American to graduate from the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis, Maryland, became Ensign Wesley Brown. In 1945, Lt. Ida Wells and Ensign Frances Wills were commissioned as the first African-American female Naval Officers. And the first African-American to wear the Navy "Wings of Gold" was Ensign Jesse Brown, who flew the FAU-4 in Corsair during the Korean War.

Opportunities for African-Americans in the U.S. Navy are now tremendous, with men and women serving in various enlisted and officer ranks. Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Navy, Charles L. Tompkins, a retired African-American Naval Captain, and graduate of Virginia State University, stresses that the importance of Naval opportunities build on the "core values of Honor, Courage, and Commitment."

LCDR Cheri D. Waterford, USN, Executive Officer, Naval Recrufting District Buffalo best typifies the African-American military officer of today. A graduate of San Francisco State University, B.S., and San Diego State University, M.S., states that "It has been a great honor to serve my country as a Naval Officer. The Navy has been a tremendous and most rewarding experience. I will be forever grateful for the training, education, and many opportunities that I have received throughout my Naval career."

The U.S. Air Force

The U.S. Air Force controls and exploits air and space. Today, 40,000 persons are recruited annually for service in the Air Force. Career opportunities in this highly technological service range from flying roles in aircraft, helicopters, supersonic fighters, long range bombers, and the space shuttle. Support roles to maintain every aspects of the flying mission provide other career opportunities.

African-American successes in the U.S. Air Force are historically connected to Bethune. Her influence led to public law 18, originally a bill sponsored by Senator Harry Swartz of Wyoming, and Senator Styles Bridges of New Hampshire. This bill, approved on 3 April 1939, provided for the development of an all African-American aviation training facility. This facility, at Tuskegee Insitute, was established 16 January 1941. From the runways of this Alabama college campus, the 99th Pursuit Squadron, The Lonely Eagles, faced racism and resentment, but they became the top P-51 fighter pilots of WWII. During the many bomber escort missions over the skies of Europe, the pilots of the "Fighting 99th" never lost a B- 17, a B-24 bomber, or a mission.

Many success stories developed from the ranks of the "Tuskegee Airmen," most notably, the second African-American in the history of the United States of America to be promoted to flag rank, General Benjamin O. Davis, Jr., USAF, 1936 graduate of West Point. His father, Benjamin O. Davis, Sr., was the first African-American General, serving his country in the U.S. Army. Another member was General Daniel "Chappie" James, USAF, who became the first four star General. "Chappie" received his commission as a 2Lt. in July 1943. A great African-American quarterback, who played football at Syracuse University, Lt. Wilmeth Sidat-Singh was also a member of the Tuskegee Airmen, and joined the unit after graduating from Syracuse University in 1939. These pioneers developed a legacy that now allows African Americans to demonstrate their ability in any productive and rewarding occupation the Air Force offers.

The U.S. Marine Corps

The U.S. Marine Corps is most unique in its mission, role, scope, and history. Overall, members of the Marine Corps serve on U.S. Navy ships, guard U.S. embassies, protect Naval bases, and serve as a quick strike mobile force. To handle its mission, the Marine Corps recruits around 50,000 people yearly to perform many duties required of officers and enlisted personnel. These members will support and operate Landbase, Shipborne, Aviation, and Amphibious operational units and squadrons.

The Marine Corps today contains many successful African-American members, who trace their lineage to the "Chosen Few," or the group known as the "Montford Pointers." But the early days of WWII were tough and dark for African Americans wanting to join the Marine Corps. Mrs. Roosevelt and Bethune understood the problems, and because of their persistent political work, President Roosevelt signed executive order 8802, establishing the Fair Employment Practice Commission. This order set in motion the opportunity for African Americans to join the Marine Corps. Shortly thereafter, the Navy announced that 900 African-American recruits would become members of the 51st Composite Defense Battalion.

The training was "tough and inhuman, but fair," according to Capt. Thomas H. McPhatter, CHC, USNR (Ret.), the last Montford Pointer to serve on active duty in the Naval services. But these Marines persevered, and opened doors that created 2Lt. Frederick Branch, USMC, the first African American Marine Corps officer, and second, 2Lt. John E. Rudder, USMC. Then in June of 1950, Frank E. Petersen, Jr., joined the U.S. Navy, and, in 1952, was commissioned a 2Lt. in the U.S. Marine Corps. He became Lt. General Frank E. Petersen, Jr., the Marine CorpsÕ first African-American General and Aviator.

Major General Jerome Gary Cooper, USMC (Ret.) was the second African-American General in the Marine Corps. A Notre Dame graduate, tremendous leader, and brilliant businessman, he was the first Black officer to lead a Marine Corps company into combat. Later, this incredible tradition would continue with the selection of North Carolina Central University graduate, Brig. General George H. Walls, Jr. USMC (Ret.), and Brig. General Cliff Stanley to the ranks of flag officers.

The Marine Corps has also lived up to the dreams of Bethune by having female Marine Officers such as Lt. Colonel Doris Daniels, USMC, from Mississippi serving proudly. As the Marine Corps projects the image of the "Proud and the Few," she and others reveal outstanding opportunities for African Americans.

The U.S. Coast Guard

African-American participation in the United States Coast Guard can be traced to the Life Saving Service of the 1880s. The Outer Banks of North Carolina provided the location for the Pea Island Coast Guard Station. Thirty miles north of Cape Hatteras, "The Graveyard of the Atlantic," this Coast Guard lifeboat station was an all African-American manned unit, carrying out the mission of saving lives and property on American waters. The Berry, Gray, Mickens, Mackey, Case, Bowser, Pruden, Etheridge, Samuels, Westcott, and Irving families maintained a proud tradition for the U.S. Coast Guard at Pea Island, NC.

The smallest of the Armed Forces, the Coast Guard is responsible for many maritime operations. Activities such as enforcing customs, fighting pollution, keeping shipping lanes open, maintaining lighthouse and navigational aids, conducting the International Ice Patrol, and drug interdiction patrols offer an array of top flight jobs and positions.

Three hundred officer billets in various areas of ship and aviation operations are available yearly, and the enlisted ranks have various job openings, depending on the needs of the service.

The history of African-American accomplishments in the Coast Guard has been noteworthy. When WWII started, the Coast Guard was a part of the U.S. Navy. Therefore, policy regarding African Americans who planned to enlist was restricted to the Messman Branch. But in 1942, Navy policy allowed African Americans to join the general service ranks. To train the influx of African- American Coast Guardsmen, the service developed the Manhattan Beach Training Station. At this base, the training was tough, but productive, and within its structure, three African-American instructors became legends. These pioneers were Lt. Clarence Samuels, USCG; Quartermaster Benjamin Jones, USCG; and Boatswain Mate Paul P. Perkins, USCG.

In April 1943, Ensign Joseph C. Jenkins, USCG, graduated from OCS, and became the first African-American Coast Guard officer. Chief Clarence Samuels, USCG, a veteran of Pea Island, PhotographersÕ Mate, climbed through the ranks, and became Lt.(jg) Clarence Samuels, USCG in October 1943. In 1944, the Navy commissioned its first African-American Line Officer, Ensign Harvey C. Russell, USCG, a graduate from OCS at the United States Coast Guard Academy.

Experimentation with integration on board Naval ships was pioneered in the U.S. Coast Guard. The U.S.S. Sea Cloud, the private yacht of Marjorie Post, was converted to Coast Guard Cutter IX-99 during WWII. This ship is distinguished as the first Naval vessel to have an integrated crew at all ranks. The Coast Guard had wanted to solve the effective manpower use of African Americans within its ranks, and they used the U.S.S. Sea Cloud to do so.

Under the command of LCDR Carlton Skinner, USCG, the Sea Cloud cruised the North Atlantic on convoy duty, and even encountered combat. The ship was credited with sinking a German submarine, and made every patrol on schedule. The U.S.S. Sea Cloud developed the model for integrated crews. This approach became the manning requirements for Naval and Coast Guard ships. Lt. Clarence Samuels, USCG, Ensign Joseph Jenkins, USCG, and Ensign Harvey Russell, USCG, all served in leadership positions on board the U.S.S. Sea Cloud.

The doors opened by these African-American Coast Guard greats paved the way for Commander Merle J. Smith, Jr., the first African American to graduate from the U.S. Coast Guard Academy at New London, CT, and Captain Bobby C. Wilks, USCG (Ret.), to become the first African American to attain the rank of Captain, first Aviator, and first to command a U.S. Coast Guard Air Station at Brooklyn, NY. One of the Coast GuardÕs most known members was writer, Chief Alex Haley, USCG, who wrote the prize winning novel Roots.

The historical legacy, service, commitment, duty, honor, and courage performed by members of the African-American community in the United States Army, Navy, Air Force, Marines, and Coast Guard were marvelous in developing the "Bridge to the 21st Century." The available opportunities for African Americans in all branches of the armed forces will provide career offerings that have challenged, responsibility, leadership rank, and outstanding benefits.

African Americans have always stood up and contributed to the defense of the United States, but our proudest moments have come when the work of leaders such as Bethune provided the "Match that lit the candle," when things were darkest as we tried to do our duty.

In 1945, on the stands of the parade grounds at MacDill Field in Florida, Bethune stood before members of the Engineering Aviation Command Unit. They honored Bethune that day with a parade, dinner, and a huge bouquet of flowers for the work she had done for the U.S. Military. As she stood before the thousands attending that day, she could truly say again that "Our People Will Never be Satisfied Until We See Black Faces in High Places."

That very day, an African American girl was growing up to become the first African-American female General in the United States Air Force. She is now General Marcelite Harris, USAF, recipient of the Legion of Merit, The Bronze Star, Meritorious Service Medal, and the Vietnam Service Medal. She was the first aircraft female maintenance officer, and the first female commander of a maintenance squadron in the Strategic Air Command of the United State Air Force. She received her Star and promotion to flag rank in 1985, forty years to the date that Bethune was honored for outstanding achievements for the military.