This article provides an overview of military officer opportunities for African-Americans in the U.S. Army, Navy, Air Force, Marines, and Coast Guard. It will explore the history of African Americans in the military, rank structure, pay, benefits, and challenging job opportunities.

Historical Overview

Gen. Colin L. Powell, U.S. Army (Ret.) and former Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, wrote: "The freedoms we enjoy today are only possible because of the sacrifices of the solders who have served this great nation in war at various times for over 300 years. Since 1641 there has never been a time in this country when African-Americans were unwilling to serve and sacrifice for America. Before revolutionary times and through every war to the present, Black men and women have willingly served and died for their country."

The history of African Americans serving in the armed forces is one of mystery, intrigue, action, education, and numerous contributions for the defense of the United States of America. This history starts with the earliest formulation activities of America, and it includes the story of the many difficulties encountered by African Americans who wanted to serve.

During the Revolutionary War, more than 5,000 African Americans served in various roles within the Continental Army and Navy, even in spite of efforts by slaveholders serving in Congress to halt these enlistments. British Governor Lord Dunsmore of Virginia offered freedom to any slave reaching his lines and offering to serve the British Empire. Rather than have African Americans serve the enemy, the Continental Congress accepted their services. But the contributions of African Americans serving their country can be traced to the Boston Massacre, the seed for the Revolutionary War. On March 5, 1770, Crispus Attucks, shot by British soldiers, became the first American to die in that battle.

In the classic battle between the U.S.S. Bonhomne Richard, commanded by Commodore John Paul Jones, and the HMS Serapis, African-American sailors fought alongside Commodore Jones. When their ship was badly damaged by the Serapis, Captain Pearson, Commanding Officer, called for the surrender of the U.S. S. Richard. But with the fighting spirit of the crew intact, Jones spoke those famous words, "I have not yet begun to fight!" and won the sea battle fought on September 23, 1779.

During the War of 1812, the contributions of African Americans are notable, where outstanding service was provided on the Brig Niagara, when Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry won the battle of Lake Erie. And the Battle of New Orleans also provided another historic moment, when African Americans fought with Andrew Jackson to save the city from the British.

African Americans served in the Army and Navy during the Civil War. Two major events during this period were President Abraham Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation, which provided freedom for the African-American slave, and the establishment of the 54th Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry Regiment.

The contributions of African Americans during the Civil War included more than 15,000 sailors serving aboard various ships of the Union Navy, and 100,000 in total military service. At Hampton Roads during the first battle of ironclad ships, the U.S.S. Monitor and C.S.S. Merrimac, African-American sailors were among the crews.

One of America's first high-ranking African-American officers, Maj. Martin R. DeLaney, U.S. Army, was promoted to this position during the Civil War. During Reconstruction, a number of high-ranking military officers were active in reserve components. Among this group were Major Gens. Robert B. Elliott, Prince Rivers, and Robert Smalls, all rewarded for their courage and outstanding military service.

These outstanding leaders laid the foundation for growth and career success for African Americans in the military today. A review of history indicates that in each of America's major conflicts, African-American soldiers and sailors made tremendous strides. In 1877, Second Lt. Henry O. Flipper was the first African-American to graduate from West Point, and with the outbreak of World War I, 639 African-American Army officers completed officer candidates school at Fort Dodge, Iowa on October 14, 1917.

During World War II African-American soldiers and sailors were in the thick of action. This global conflict required the dedicated services of massive numbers of personnel, and African Americans participated in many challenging battles. These opportunities of service developed Messman Dorie Miller, U.S. Navy, hero of Pearl Harbor; and the Tuskegee Airmen, members of the 99th, 100th, 301st, and 302nd Fighter Squadrons of the Army Air Corps. This unit flew P-51 fighter aircraft over the skies of Europe. From its ranks, Colonel Benjamin O. Davis, Jr. became the first African-American general in the Air Force.

Many career milestones occurred during this period, such as the commissioning of Capt. Edna Virginia Wright, U.S. Army, as one of the first African-American females in the Army Nurse Corps. The 6888th central Postal Directory Battalion, which delivered mail throughout the European theater, was the only all-African American female unit serving overseas.

Within the U.S. Army, the 761st Infantry Regiment, Red Ball Express, and 555th Parachute Infantry Battalion were African-American units that distinguished themselves. The U.S. Navy provided a historical moment with the commissioning of 12 Ensigns and one warrant officer in 1944. This group, known as "The Golden Thirteen," provided the first African- American officers in the U.S. Navy. The only training center for African- American Marines was Montford Point, where more than 20,000 were trained for World War II action. From this foundation, the future U.S. Marine Corps created outstanding African- American generals like aviator Frank E. Petersen, and J. Gary Cooper. In the U.S. Coast Guard, Lt. Joseph C. Jenkins, Ens. Harvey Russet, and Lt. Clarence Samuels became the first African- American officers; Alexander Haley, the first African-American chief journalist. And on Pea Island, North Carolina, African Americans commanded an entire Coast Guard Station.

A historic moment occurred after the war ended, when President Harry S. Truman's executive order, issued 26 July 1947, set up the mechanism that led to the integration of the military services.

In the Korean War, Lt. James Harvey, and Maj. Daniel "Chappie" James, U.S. Air Force, flew jet aircraft. Ensign Jesse L. Brown, who was shot down over Korea, was the first African-American carrier pilot. Pfc. William Thompson and Sgt. Cornelius H. Carlton, U.S. Army, were African- American Medal of Honor winners during the Korean War.

Following the Korean War, through our engagements in Vietnam to the present, African- American soldiers, sailors, Marines, and Coast Guardsmen succeeded in spite of great challenges. They include Rear Adm. Samuel L Gravely, U.S. Navy first to reach the rank of admiral; Maj. Gen. J. Gary Cooper, U.S. Marine Corps, first to lead Marines into combat; Lt. Gen. Frank E. Petersen, U.S. Marine Corps., first aviator; Col. Doris Daniels, U.S. Marine Corps, first high-ranking female Marine officer; Capt. Bobby Wilks, U.S. Coast Guard, first Coast Guard aviator and first to command an Air Station; Brig. Gen. Hazel W. Johnson, U.S. Army, first female to achieve the rank of general; Brig. Gen. Benjamin O. Davis, U.S. Army, first to achieve the rank of general; Gen. Roscoe Robinson, Jr., U.S. Army, first four star Army general; Gen. L. Daniel "Chappie" James, U.S. Air Force, first four star general; Lt. Gen. Benjamin O. Davis, Jr., first general in the U.S. Air Force; and Rear Adm. Mack C. Gaston, U.S. Navy, first African- American to command the Great Lakes Naval Training Center.

Role of the Commissioned Officer

Lt. Col. Leonard E. Dodd, Battalion Commander, U.S. Army Recruiting Command, states that his career as an officer has "enhanced my quality of dependability, good character, discipline, standards, education, and leadership." The role of the officer in the armed forces is to provide leadership--for all operational commands. The student seeking a challenging, demanding, but rewarding career with a multiplicity of opportunities, can find it all while serving as a military officer. This role of leadership requires a high level of educational achievement as well as an understanding of the psychology of commanding people.

Military officers are expected to command the managerial, executive, scientific and technical centers of high-level military operations. In the U.S. Army, the officer will command a fort or a brigade. In the Navy, he or she will command a ship, submarine, or aircraft squadron. In the Air Force, officers command space shuttles or engineering, airlift wing, medical staff, or logistics centers. In the Marines, they command operations and training, plans and budget, or enlisted processing stations. In the Coast Guard, they can be chief of training, executive officers, or public affairs; or commanding officer of a cutter.

Educational Preparation and Qualification

The educational path and personal qualifications required to receive an officer's commission in the military varies with each branch. Depending on the type of military opportunity that you seek, specific levels of education and achievement qualification scores will be required. But, for most officer opportunities, the candidate should be a citizen of the United States, at least 19 years of age (maximum age levels will vary for different fields), have completed a bachelor's degree (the type will vary for different specialties), and be physically qualified according to medical standards of the military branch selected.

Overall, all branches of the armed forces seek officers according to the "whole person concept." This approach is a formula that selects future military officers on the basis of a balance of educational training, qualifying test scores, work experiences, participation in extra-curricular activities, a strong sense of community service, and recommendations from educational teachers and leaders.

Success as an officer candidate requires good work habits, flexibility, good character, and versatility.

Career Path, Rank Structure, and Benefits

Cmdr. Thomas R. Daniels, Jr., U.S. Navy Commanding Officer, U.S.S. Samuel Eliot Morison (FFG- 13), says anyone seeking a career in the armed forces will find "no glass ceiling" while moving through its rank structures. The military has a well- defined system of career paths to follow. After receiving your commission, either though the U.S. Military Academy (Army); U.S. Naval Academy (Navy and Marines); U.S. Air Force Academy; U.S. Coast Guard Academy; ROTC units on college campuses; officer candidates school; or direct commission, the doors of opportunity are wide open.

In the U.S. Army, Air Force, and Marines, the career officer will be commissioned a Second Lieutenant, then, after successful evaluation, be promoted to First Lieutenant, Captain, Major, Lieutenant Colonel, Colonel, and General. The U.S. Navy and Coast Guard have different rank titles, but the pay and benefits are quite similar to those of the other services. The rank structures are Ensign, Lieutenant, Lieutenant Commander, Commander, Captain, and Admiral.

Pay and benefits are based on rank and cumulative years of service. For example, the newly commissioned Second Lieutenant or Ensign can expect on average a base salary of $26,000 per year. Further, this salary is augmented by allowances for living quarters, subsistence, and various hazardous duty incentives. For example, in the U.S. Navy an officer's salary can be supplemented by either sea pay, submarine pay, or aviation pay, depending on the career path. Overall, the armed forces offer a salary structure that is competitive with private industry.

Lt. Chris Riley, U.S. Navy, 1992 graduate of the U.S. Naval Academy, is a nuclear power submarine officer. This brilliant African-American Naval officer received his BS degree in ocean engineering, then entered into a graduate engineering program. He got his MS degree in mechanical engineering at Syracuse University. Lt. Riley states: "Prior to entering the Navy, I never realized how many opportunities it would present." His advice to the college student considering a career in the military is to consider the many benefits and opportunities that will allow you to mature and develop.

Benefits available to members of the armed forces compare favorably to those in the civilian work force. Some examples are opportunities for highly advanced training and education with full salary, early high-level management responsibilities, medical and dental care, 30 days of paid yearly vacation, moving allowances, shopping privileges at exchanges and commissaries, membership affiliation with officer clubs, a dynamic retirement program, and fringe benefits that offer long-range security for both career advancement and family stability.

As William Bowser, Sr., U.S. Coast Guard, a product of the famous African-American manned Coast Guard Station at Pea Island, North Carolina, says, "The initial military career offers tremendous challenge and is hard at first, but the long-term benefits are tremendous."

Challenging Military Officer Opportunities

Rear Adm. Anthony Watson, U.S. Navy, is commander of the U.S. Naval Recruiting Command. He is the first African-American officer to hold this position. His story of success is evidence of the opportunities available for African-Americans in the armed forces. He calls himself "the project kid from Cabrini-Green in Chicago." After graduating from Lane Technical High School in 1966, and the U.S. Naval Academy, Admiral Watson moved up the ranks in the critical field of nuclear power engineering. Admiral Watson tells this generation of students, "Seize the opportunities available, and be prepared to be a long-distance runner, ready to run that extra mile."

The military offers many critical and challenging opportunities, says Cmdr. Mary McAdams, U.S. Navy, commanding officer of Naval Recruiting District Houston, Texas. McAdams is one of the few African-American females in a command role with regard to recruiting officers for the military.

An analysis of present job opportunities available in the U.S. Army, Navy, Air Force, Marines, and Coast Guard reveals critical needs for management, engineering, computer sciences, aviation, medicine, nuclear engineering, intelligence, civil engineering, architecture, supply, communications, logistics, financial management, and research. The best recommendation for the African-American student seeking a career as a military officer is to develop a strong liberal arts, engineering, or science education background. The needs of the various service branches vary, so it is difficult in a changing world to predict specific needs.

But Lt. Will Nelson, U.S. Navy, aviator and officer program officer, communicates daily to his team: "The door is wide open for the qualified African-American candidate. It's a viable option to assume leadership and management positions, and experience personal growth for future success."

Future Outlook

The 21st century will offer enormous opportunities that will require the full use of one's resources and abilities. As the U.S. Air Force advertises daily: "Aim High." Department of Defense personnel projections for the next decade show concentrated efforts to increase African-American and other minority representation in all branches. The competition for qualified African-American candidates among the armed forces as well as with the private sector will produce a wide open field. The key is to be ready from a perspective of education, professional development, emotional maturity, and a healthy body.

Capt. Bobby Wilks, U.S. Coast Guard (Ret.), the first African- American Coast Guard aviator, tells the generation of the '90s: "Make lemonade out of lemons that are thrown at you as you prepare for your future." The future is very bright, for African Americans serving their country as military officers.